The Stoics taught that a person should live in harmony with nature, accepting without strong emotion what Fate (or logos) brings.

THE FOUNDER: ZENO OF CITIUM (ca. 336-ca. 265 B.C.)

The reconstructed Porch (Stoa in Greek) of Attalos behind the Agora in Athens. Zeno of Citium taught here which led to his philosophy being called "Stoicism" (literally, "porch-ism").

Zeno was born in the small town of Citium on the island of Cyprus. As a young man he moved to Athens, where, it is said, he discovered philosophy by reading Xenophon's description of Socrates, the Memorabilia. Socrates being long dead, Zeno attached himself for some time to the Cynics. Zeno agreed with the Cynics that self-control over emotions was essential to a virtuous life. Zeno was also attracted to the teachings of Heraclitus--particularly to the Heraclitean notion of an eternal fire or logos that controls the universe. Sometime around 300 B.C., Zeno set up a school of philosophy in the Painted Porch, Stoa Poikile, a school that came to be known as "Stoic." His Stoic school may have been established specifically to counter the philosophy of Epicurus. At any rate, he argued that virtue, not pleasure, was the only good, and that natural law, not the random swerving of atoms, was the key principle of the universe. While teaching at his school, Zeno read widely and was greatly respected for his learning, his character, and the simplicity of his life. A severe and austere man, he was, like some of the Pre-Socratics, a sage as well as a philosopher. Zeno believed strongly in divine signs. He is said to have committed suicide after breaking his toe on a rock, believing the incident to be a sign of God's will.

BASIC BELIEFS

Like Epicurus before him, Zeno divided philosophy into logic (including the theory of knowledge), physics, and ethics. In their discussions of logic, Zeno and his followers examined at great length the relationships among words, their meanings, and the objects to which they refer. They developed several subtle distinctions that are still examined and discussed today (see the suggested readings). They also developed an understanding of sensory knowledge based on impressions that was similar to the theories of Epicurus.

In physics, Zeno developed an elaborate cosmology that includes both a passive and an active principle. The passive principle is matter, while the active principle is the "fiery breath," (pneuma,) known by such names as god, mind, fate, Zeus, and logos. This active principle is not separate from the world, but permeates it, molding passive matter into an ordered universe. Permeating everything, god/mind/logos directs the course of affairs and connects all parts into one whole, like a giant organism.

The key to ethics for Zeno and his disciples is to live in harmony with this active principle. This requires both the wisdom to know what part we are to play and the "apathy" (apatheia), or avoidance of strong emotions, to accept what we cannot change. Happiness, or more accurately, contentment, is possible in any condition. In fact, among prominent later Stoics, Epictetus was born a slave while Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor.