NINETEENTH-CENTURY THOUGHT

The Crystal Palace in London 1851 symbolized the 19th Century belief in progress.

The Nineteenth Century has often been described as the Age of Progress. The scientific discoveries of the Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Centuries had led to numerous technological advances in Europe and America. These advances, in turn, made possible the Industrial Revolution and the incredible outpouring of goods it produced. Millions left the hard life of the farm to move to cities and work in factories. In England, for example, in 1800 only 21% of the population lived in cities over 10,000. By 1890 the percentage of city-dwellers had reached 62%. Life in the city seemed full of promise and the good life seemed within reach of all.

A cartoon of Queen Victoria (1819-1901), the namesake of the "Victorian Age."

The early nineteenth-century philosophies of Hegel and Mill epitomized this optimism about the future. Hegel claimed that "Idea" (or "Spirit" or "Mind") was guiding all of history. Contradictions in thought and practice would be overcome as history progressed. For his part, Mill wrote in his major work, Utilitarianism, of the "progress of science [which] holds out a promise for the future." Mill argued that free individuals representing the "wisdom of society" could overcome the social problems of the Nineteenth Century.

Yet by the middle of the century doubts were beginning to emerge among some thinkers. Kierkegaard questioned the optimistic assumptions of Hegel and expressed skepticism about the inevitability of progress. More fundamentally, Kierkegaard claimed that Hegel's entire system was flawed, because it assumed an objectivity that is unavailable and a finality that does not exist within history. For his part, Marx noted the effect of the Industrial Revolution on the factory worker and called for a change in the social and economic order. Marx also raised questions about Hegel, focusing his attack on Hegel's concept of "Idea."

Towards the end of the century, Nietzsche added his voice to the skeptics about nineteenth-century progress. Nietzsche decried the lack of passion brought on by the comforts of the Industrial Revolution. He called on thinking persons to recognize that there are no standards, that "God is dead," and to assert their "will to power" in overcoming the comfortable mediocrity of his age.

Though Nietzsche died in 1900 the nineteenth century really did not come to an end, in terms of ideas, until 1914. In that year all the impressive technological that had developed over the last century was brought to bear on the goal of killing people. A system of alliances that had been established in the mid-1800's on the basis of rational, pragmatic considerations insured that virtually the entire world was involved in the struggle. By the time World War I had ended, the nineteenth-century optimistic assumption of progress had died.

MAPS AND TOURS:

LINKS:

General:

Hippias: Limited Area Search of Philosophy on the Internet: The most complete place to begin searching for information in philosophy.
Guide to Philosophy on the Internet: Maintained by Peter Suber, Philosophy Department, Earlham College, this is the best one stop shopping source for links to everything. Clearly arranges links by Guides, Philosophers, Topics, Associations, Journals, Teaching/Learning, Etexts, Bibliographies, Mailing Lists, Newsgroups, Projects, Preprints, Jobs , Dictionaries, Quotations, etc. Be warned--it is one huge page. ( There is also a multiple-file edition that loads more quickly, but requires a good bit of surfing to get around.)
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Includes a timeline (but text only-no links). Click here for a timeline with links.
Philosophy in Cyberspace: A very nicely, neatly laid-out site with links.
Historians and Philosophers: A collated web index of significant thinkers. Includes links to texts by and about most major philosophers.

19th Century Thinkers:

Existential Frames - A Primer to Existentialsim: Includes biography, chronology (in table form), bibliography, and summary of works for a number of thinkers including Hegel, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche.
Hegel: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on Hegel.
Hegel: The Hegel Society of America with links to study guides, biographies, etexts, etc.
Mill: Etexts and other information and links on Mill.
Kierkegaard: An online commentary on the writings of Kierkegaard with introductions, a brief biography and chronology of his life, a bibliography, images, and links.
Kierkegaard: International Kierkegaard information includes lists of societies, conferences and seminars, resources, and the International Kierkegaard Newsletter.
Marx: Includes links to just about everything on Marx and Marxism.
Nietzsche: Includes links to virtually everything about Nietzsche on the internet and a useful study guide to Part I of Zarathustra (be careful about the linked translation of Zarathustra-it is a poor one.) When you visit The Nietzsche Page, you will get a fun auditory surprise!